There is no singular, real, true masculinity. The norms that constitute a “real man” vary enormously across culture, time, and place; the masculine ideal in Ancient China is different compared to the one in 20th century America. Thus, multiple masculinities exist, each individually shaped by class, race, culture, sexuality, and more. Yet despite this reality of infinite unique masculinities, in most societies, only one rises to the top. In Western society, the cultural ideal of manhood is reflective of white, heterosexual, upper-class males who embody characteristics of aggression, stoicism, handsomeness, courage, toughness, athleticism, competitiveness, and success. This ideal is propagated and sustained through both demonizing femininities and placing norms around what  “real masculinity” is. This results in the suppression of not only women but also all non-gender-conforming identities as well as men who don’t conform to the ideal. Furthermore, having only one primary form of masculinity that idealizes many toxic behaviors has led to internal pain and conflict in many men. J.D Salinger explores this experience in his classic American novel, The Catcher in the Rye. There, Salinger illustrates the inauthenticity of the norms of our current conception of masculinity, the intense anguish caused by the conception, the way it’s forwarded and enacted upon, and the way it’s enormously difficult to escape. He additionally posits his interpretation: healthy masculinity comes from fluidity of self-expression and the ability to process and understand a myriad of human emotions.

Through the character of Holden Caulfield, Salinger attacks many of the norms that society dictates one must satisfy in order to be considered a “real” man. One primary way he does this is through Holden’s rejection of his peer Stradlater.  We are told that Stradlater is wealthy, friendly,  handsome, strong, and a star athlete (25, 26, 27, 30, 43). These traits make it so that in the social hierarchy of an all-boys school like Pency Prep, Stradlater is in a dominant position; when Holden and Stradlater were alone in the restroom, Holden kept “turning the cold water on and off,” a “nervous habit [he] had.” (26). Additionally, Stradlater is comfortable in enforcing his dominance and power over other male students, “always asking [others] to do him a favor,” pressuring Holden to write his English composition and lend his hounds-tooth jacket (27, 29, 25). Yet rather than admiring Stradlater and attempting to imitate him, Holden instead sees his character as rooted in inauthenticity and phoniness, as evidenced by the scene where Holden watches Stradlater shave. Holden notes “[the razor] was always rusty as hell and full of lather and hairs and crap…He always looked good when he was finished fixing himself up, but he was a secret slob anyway” (27). The filthy razor symbolizes the contradiction between one’s perceived masculinity and their internal self. While to most Stradlater appears perfect, his masculinity is superficial and a hoax. Additionally, Holden is also disgusted by Stradlater’s narcissism. Holden details that “[Stradlater] was madly in love with himself” and that “just because they’re crazy about themself, they think you’re crazy about them, too. It’s sort of funny.” (28). Holden clearly sees Stradlater’s self-perception as absurd and dislikes him. Holden’s dismissal of Stradlater is important because, in many ways, Stradlater manifests the personification of the ideal masculinity. As a result, by having Holden reject Stradlater, Salinger is similarly rejecting the ideal of the aggressive, overconfident male and the structures that uphold this singular form of manliness.

This difference between Holden and Stradlater is further illuminated through their different treatment of women. Stradlater treats women as objects, looking only to sexually exploit them. Holden tells us of a time when he and Stradlater went on a double date together: 

What he’d do was, he’d start snowing his date in this very quiet, sincere voice—like as if he wasn’t only a very handsome guy but a nice, sincere guy, too. I damn near puked, listening to him. His date kept saying, ‘No—please. Please, don’t. Please.’ But old Stradlater kept snowing her in this Abraham Lincoln, sincere voice, and finally, there’d be this terrific silence in the back of the car (49).

This was apparently Strandater’s “technique,” which he was rewarded for, as while “Most guys at Pencey just talked about having sexual intercourse with girls all the time… Stradlater really did.” (49, 48). Here, the juxtaposition between Stradlater’s “sincere” voice--his performance of masculinity--and his sexual violence--his true self-- furthers the contradictions in his character. Similarly, Salinger’s diction “technique” connotes that these actions are purposeful and calculated, contributing to Holden’s feelings of disgust, leading him to see this masculinity as evil. In contrast, Holden later claims that he’s still a virgin because he always stops when a girl tells him to, even though most men don’t; his refusal to commit what we now classify as sexual assault sets him apart (92). However, it’s important to note that while Holden does not engage in those actions, he is still complicit in perpetuating this harmful masculinity. 

After all, Holden consistently does nothing to combat these structures and even forwards them. While Holden does not sexually assault women and is disgusted by those who do, he also does nothing to stop the sexual assaults from happening. At Ernie’s, Holden simply looked on as a man felt his date up under the table even as the date protested, saying “Don’t, darling. Please, don’t. Not here.” (Salinger 86). Similarly, Holden did not intervene to stop Stradlater during the double date, despite Stradlater’s abhorrent behavior and his own repulsion towards it. Some may point out Holden’s anger towards Stradlater and fear for Jane Gallagher’s safety (after he learns of her date with Stradlater) and his subsequent fight with Stradlater as a counterexample. However, it’s important to note that Holden only punches Stradlater because of Jane’s perceived innocence. Instead of seeing Jane Gallagher as a maturing young woman, he sees her as the little girl who would “leave [all her kings] in the back row.” (32). Additionally, he goes out of his way to tell us that he and Jane had no sexual relationship; they would just hold hands (76). Thus, Holden’s desperation to “protect” Jane comes from the belief that she should remain chaste and childlike, continuing to live up to his idealized perception. In essence, Holden infantilizes her, causing him to conceptualize her and femininity in general as being weak and childlike. Ultimately, not only does his inaction legitimize the exploitation as normal and acceptable, but his infantilization of women also legitimizes the idea of women being lesser and requiring male protection. Holden, while a relative outsider, is still a participant. For this reason, instead of affirming Holden’s complicity, Salinger offers an alternative method through the character of Mr. Antolini. 

Holden expressed contempt and distrust in almost every male figure of authority he encountered like Mr. Spencer, D.B, his father, and more, calling them phony and feeling disconnected from them. As a result, Mr. Antolini stands out as the only adult figure Holden respected as the “best teacher [he] ever had.” (174). Antolini himself is an outsider who doesn’t fit in and rejects many norms of hegemonic masculinity. For example, when Holden’s classmate James Castle commits suicide, Mr.Antolini “was the one that finally picked up that boy… he took off his coat and put it over James Castle and carried him all the way over to the infirmary. He didn’t even give a damn if his coat got bloody.” (174). By doing so, Mr. Antolini not only distinguishes himself from the rest of the phony adults Holden is surrounded by, but his lack of regard for the blood on his coat also demonstrates the importance of kindness and empathy, two traits that are feminized. Furthermore, Holden tells us that Mr. Antolini’s wife was also “about sixty years older than [him]” but the two were happy together as “they were both very intellectual.” (181). Society has consistently told men to only value women for their appearances, to have the beauty of their wife act as a status symbol--a trophy--to prove their masculinity. Thus, Mr. Antolini valuing his wife for her mind and not caring about her age in a society that tells us that age, especially for females, is antithetical to youth and beauty, again upsets masculine norms. Yet despite his rejection of these norms, Mr.Antolini is still very successful and “lives in a very swanky apartment.” (180). As such, Antolini is symbolic of an escape or alternative. Finally, Antolini also offers a true way out to Holden--one through academia. Antolini tells us that an academic education will give him “ an idea [of] what kind of thoughts your particular mind should be wearing… You’ll begin to know your true measurements and dress your mind accordingly.” (190). In other words, Holden will be able to dissect and understand the oppressiveness of society’s current masculine ideal and work to fight against his masculine socialization. Antolini doesn’t characterize this learning as education, which Holden has had traumatic experiences with. Instead, “It’s history. It’s poetry.” (189). He celebrates areas of study that are more fluid and creative rather than formulaic and systematic, encouraging space for femininity and exploration of masculinity. Academia also serves as a mechanism for men to potentially be vulnerable, something that masculine socialization tells them is unacceptable. Antolini tells us that writing is the way many troubled men express their emotions by keeping records of them (189). Additionally, he characterizes that action as something extremely positive and even encourages Holden to do the same, telling him “It’s a beautiful reciprocal arrangement.” (189). From this, we can see that Salinger’s conception of healthy masculinity is more gender-fluid and freeing, encouraging more space for varied performances and vulnerability. Yet despite the clear picture Salinger paints for Holden through Antolini’s characterization--a potential freeing path forward-- Holden’s masculine socialization prevents him from apprehending it.

Holden makes little attempt to internalize Antolini’s message, screening it with his fear of vulnerability and homophobia. While Antolini makes attempts using language to close the gap between him and Holden, referring to Holden as “m’boy” when he first greets him and “handsome” when bidding him good night, Holden actively rejects that (191, 181). By responding with “Mr. Antolini” and “sir”, Holden is reinserting the distance between the two and drawing a clear line of formality (191, 181). While this may seem like a minuscule detail, it serves to contextualize the large event coming soon. Holden wakes up to Antolini patting him on the head, a connotatively familial gesture; it brings to mind imagery of a father mussing up the hair of his son. This familial atmosphere is further corroborated by Mr. Antolini’s treatment of Holden where he consistently demonstrates caring towards Holden with no sexual undertones. However, Holden, who’s distant from his father and unfamiliar with emotional intimacy, reacts with extreme disgust and shock. Holden immediately interrogates, “What the hellya doing?” and leaves Antolini’s house in the middle of the night (192, 193). Holden later reveals to us that this happened because he was worried that Antolini was making a “flitty” pass towards him, where flitty is Holden’s derogatory term for gay (194). Homophobia is a core aspect of toxic masculinity, a structure that necessitates men oppressing queerness and femininity to distinguish themselves from those traits. Otherwise, by not participating in the demonization of those traits and voicing their disapproval, the men themselves become targets for ostracization. Thus, despite the importance of brotherhood, Holden’s learned that asserting one’s heterosexuality is more important and outweighs the need for men to express and accept friendly or paternal love. He’s too afraid of being perceived as gay, and therefore not a real man. His socialization and internalization of this message have made him unreceptive to Antolini’s help. Holden’s rationale here may also be an attempt to deflect from his inability to be vulnerable; he uses homophobia as an excuse to not open up. This, along with other factors, leads to an immense internal conflict within Holden and ends with him going “crazy.”

The pressures of toxic masculine norms cause enormous internal anguish within men that can range from isolation and loneliness to panic attacks and depression to suicide. The impact of hegemonic masculinity is defined by internal conflict. As Mr. Antolini tells Holden, “You’re not the first person who was ever confused and frightened and even sickened by human behavior. Many, many men have been just as troubled morally and spiritually as you are right now.” (189). Thus, we see that many men, like Holden, have been unable to pursue happiness and live purposefully because of these structures. This conflict is in no way better exemplified than through Holden’s descent into becoming “crazy,” ultimately ending with being sent to a mental institution. In Holden, like many men, these structures not only deprive him of the ability to be vulnerable but also of feeling safe. Vulnerability, something toxic masculinity police as being feminine, is what prevents Holden from making meaningful connections. His emotional unavailability not only causes the falling out with Antolini but also prevents him from seeking out guidance or making true friendships. This all plays a major role in Holden's sense of isolation and loneliness. His inability to be vulnerable can also be connected to his poor coping mechanisms, where he uses his red hunting cap and fantasies to hide in instead of confronting his problems. Unfortunately, all this leads to further ostracization; Holden is told by Ackley that “[He’s] nuts'' and to “grow up.” (21, 22). Furthermore, his inability to fit in and satisfy these norms also leads to self-loathing.  Holden narrates: “Almost every time somebody gives me a present, it ends up making me sad,” reflecting how he feels undeserving of kindness (52). It’s also important to note that elite all-male boarding schools, like Pencey, are notoriously known for being breeding grounds for hyper-masculinity. Thus, it comes to little surprise that Pencey made Holden feel “too sad and lonesome”, damaging Holden such that he was crying as he left the school, nor that he took off his hunting hat immediately after he exited the grounds (51, 52, 53).  This all culminates until Holden “...felt so lonesome… [that he] almost wished [he] was dead.” (48). He, like many other men, as Antolini says, is “riding for some kind of a terrible, terrible fall.” (186). Yet they are fortunate; many have already fallen. Some were deprived of life, like Holden’s former classmate at Elkton Hills, James Castle. Castle’s situation is an undeniably tragic one. Castle called Phil Stabile, a classmate “conceited” (170). In response, Stabile and his friends get together and do something so repulsive that Holden wouldn’t narrate it (likely rape and violence) to get him to take back his statement (170). Yet Castle refused to do so. Had Castle taken back his insult and affirmed his status as being lower in the hierarchy, his torment could have stopped. Instead, Stabile and his friends, unable to take this insult from “a skinny little weak-looking guy, with wrists about as big as pencils'' and risk lowering their position and being emasculated, continued until James Castle “jumped out of the window,” committing suicide (170). We see here that the structure of masculinity has proximal, true, and serious impacts that must be resolved.

The validity of western society’s norms on masculinity, the methods through which they are upheld, their impacts, potential alternatives, and the difficulty of escaping this structure is documented by  J.D Salinger in The Catcher in the Rye.  Through Stradlater, a characterization of the time’s masculine ideals, we see that these norms should be rejected due to their inauthenticity. Gender expression is a performance and does not necessarily match the true person inside; one may appear to be a “real” man but instead be a phony and hypocrite. Yet even with this knowledge, the structure is impossibly hard to escape, leading most men, like Holden, to be complicit in hegemonic masculinity. Even when Holden is presented with an alternative represented by Mr. Antolini--someone who encouraged him to be vulnerable and explore his identity-- he was unable to overcome his masculine socialization, as well as the risk of physical endangerment and violence that those who stand out face. However, the inability to escape and internalization of characteristics the culture promotes like stoicism and aggression leads to depression and isolation. Consequently, Holden ends up breaking down and being sent to a mental institution. His fate is paralleled by his classmate James Castle who ends up committing suicide. The struggle and fate of these characters are emblematic of that of many men; that may be the reason The Catcher in the Rye has yet to lose its relevance. 

The way that we have enforced gender onto young boys failed Holden Caulfield and James Castle and continues to fail all people still.  For instance, the male suicide rate is almost four times higher than the female one; one major cause has been identified as the traditional gender roles and traits placed upon men prevent vulnerability and emotional expression (NCHS). When it comes to women, the MeToo movement has been the watershed moment of the true magnitude of our current culture’s treatment of women and the intense sexual violence they experience on a daily basis. Similar to how Stradlater was never punished for his actions, most men today escape any consequences. The way the movement has resonated with so many illustrates how common of an experience dehumanization and degradation is. It’s clear as glass that current systems and norms around masculinity need to be deeply examined and overhauled. As a society, we must work hard together to destigmatize men showing attributes or engaging in activities that have been traditionally gendered as feminine. Otherwise, we are sentencing entire generations of men to fates filled with confusion and suffering, and women to violence at their hands.